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All American: Glossary of Literary Terms
allegory (AL-eh-GOR-ee): a narrative that
serves as an extended metaphor. Allegories are written in the form of fables,
parables, poems, stories, and almost any other style or genre. The main
purpose of an allegory is to tell a story that has characters, a setting,
as well as other types of symbols, that have both literal and figurative
meanings. The difference between an allegory and a symbol is that an allegory
is a complete narrative that conveys abstract ideas to get a point across,
while a symbol is a representation of an idea or concept that can have
a different meaning throughout a literary work (A Handbook to Literature).
One well-known example of an allegory is Dante’s The Divine Comedy.
In Inferno, Dante is on a pilgrimage to try to understand his own
life, but his character also represents every man who is in search of his
purpose in the world (Merriam Webster Encyclopedia of Literature).
Although Virgil literally guides Dante on his journey through the mystical
inferno, he can also be seen as the reason and human wisdom that Dante
has been looking for in his life. See A Handbook to Literature,
Merriam
Webster’s Encyclopedia of Literature. Machella Caldwell, Student,
University of North Carolina at Pembroke
alliteration (a-LIT-uh-RAY-shuhn):
a pattern of sound that includes the repetition of consonant sounds.
The repetition can be located at the beginning of successive words or inside
the words. Poets often use alliteration to audibly represent the action
that is taking place. For instance, in the Inferno, Dante
states: "I saw it there, but I saw nothing in it, except the rising of
the boiling bubbles" (261). The repetition of the "b" sounds represents
the sounds of bubbling, or the bursting action of the boiling pitch. In
addition, in Sir Phillip Sidney's Astrophel and Stella, the poet
states: "Biting my truant pen, beating myself for spite" (Line 13). This
repetition of the "t" sound represents the action of the poet; one
can hear and visualize his anguish as he bites the pen. Also in Astrophel
and Stella, the poet states, "Oft turning others' leaves, to see if
thence would flow, / Some fresh and fruitful showers upon my sunburn'd
brain" (7-8). Again, the poet repeats the "fr" sounds to emphasize the
speaker's desire for inspiration in expressing his feelings. Poets may
also use alliteration to call attention to a phrase and fix it into the
reader's mind; thus, it is useful for emphasis. Therefore, not only does
alliteration provide poetry or prose with a unique sound, it can place
emphasis on specific phrases and represent the action that is taking place.
See A Handbook to Literature, Literature: An Introduction to
Fiction, Poetry, and Drama. Stacey Ann Singletary, Student, University
of North Carolina at Pembroke
allusion (a-LOO-zhuhn): a reference
in a literary work to a person, place, or thing in history or another work
of literature. Allusions are often indirect or brief references to well-known
characters or events. Specific examples of allusions can be found throughout
Dante’s Inferno. In a passage, Dante alludes to the Greek mythological
figures, Phaethon and Icarus, to express his fear as he descends from the
air into the eighth circle of hell. He states:
I doubt if Phaethon feared more - that time
he dropped the sun-reins of his father's chariot
and burned the streak of sky we see today -
or if poor Icarus did - feeling his sides
unfeathering as the wax began to melt,
his father shouting: "Wrong, your course is wrong" (Canto XVII:
106-111).
Allusions are often used to summarize broad, complex ideas or emotions
in one quick, powerful image. For example, to communicate the idea of self-sacrifice
one may refer to Jesus, as part of Jesus' story portrays him dying on the
cross in order to save mankind (Matthew 27:45-56). In addition, to express
righteousness, one might allude to Noah who "had no faults and was the
only good man of his time" (Genesis 6:9-22). Furthermore, the idea of fatherhood
or patriarchial love can be well understood by alluding to Abraham, who
was the ancestor of many nations (Genesis 17:3-6). Finally, Cain is an
excellent example to convey banishment, rejection, or evil, for he was
cast out of his homeland by God (Genesis 4:12). Thus, allusions serve an
important function in writing in that they allow the reader to understand
a difficult concept by relating to an already familiar story. See A
Handbook to Literature, Literature: An Introduction to Fiction,
Poetry, and Drama. Stacey Ann Singletary, Student, University of
North Carolina at Pembroke
antagonist (an-TAG-uh-nist): a
character in a story or poem who deceives, frustrates, or works again the
main character, or protagonist, in some way.
The antagonist doesn’t necessarily have to be an person. It could be death,
the devil, an illness, or any challenge that prevents the main character
from living “happily ever after." In fact, the antagonist could be a character
of virtue in a literary work where the protagonist represents evil. An
antagonist in the story of Genesis is the serpent. He convinces Eve to
disobey God, setting off a chain of events.that leads to Adam and Eve being
banished from paradise. In the play Othello by William Shakespeare,
the antagonist is Iago. Throughout the play, he instigates conflicts and
sows distrust among the main characters, Othello and Desdemona, two lovers
who have risked their livelihood in order to elope. Iago is determined
to break up their marriage due to his suspicions that Othello has taken
certain liberties with his wife. See Benet’s Reader’s Encyclopedia.
Victoria
Henderson, Student, University of North Carolina at Pembroke
aside (uh-SIDE): an actor’s speech, directed
to the audience, that is not supposed to be heard by other actors on stage.
An aside is usually used to let the audience know what a character is about
to do or what he or she is thinking. For example, in Othello, Iago
gives several asides, informing the audience of his plans and how he will
try to achieve his goals. Asides are important because they increase an
audience's involvement in a play by giving them vital information pertaining
what is happening, both inside of a character's mind and in the plot of
the play. See A Handbook to Literature, The Concise Oxford Dictionary
of Literary Terms, Merriam Webster’s Encyclopedia of Literature.
Dawn
Oxendine, Student, University of North Carolina at Pembroke
ballad (BAL-uhd): a narrative folk song. The
ballad is traced back to the Middle Ages. Ballads were usually created
by common people and passed orally due to the illiteracy of the time. Subjects
for ballads include killings, feuds, important historical events, and rebellion.
For example, in the international ballad “Lord Randall,” the young man
is poisoned by his sweetheart, and in “Edward,” the son commits patricide.
A common stylistic element of the ballad is repetition. “Lord Randall”
illustrates this well with the phrase at the end of each verse: “…mother,
mak my bed soon, for I’m sick at the heart and I fain wad lie down.” A
Handbook to Literature notes the ballad occurs in very early literature
in nearly every nation. Therefore, in addition to being entertaining, ballads
can help us to understand a given culture by showing us what values or
norms that culture deemed important. See A Handbook to Literature,
Benet’s
Reader’s Encyclopedia, Merriam-Webster’s Encyclopedia of Literature,
The Book of Ballads. Monica Horne, Student, University of North
Carolina at Pembroke
character (KARE-ec-ter): a person who is
responsible for the thoughts and actions within a story, poem, or other
literature. Characters are extremely important because they are the medium
through which a reader interacts with a piece of literature. Every character
has his or her own personality, which a creative author uses to assist
in forming the plot of a story or creating a mood. The different attitudes,
mannerisms, and even appearances of characters can greatly influence the
other major elements in a literary work, such as theme, setting, and tone.
With this understanding of the character, a reader can become more aware
of other aspects of literature, such as symbolism, giving the reader a
more complete understanding of the work. The character is one of the most
important tools available to the author. In the ballad "Edward," for instance,
the character himself sets the tone of the ballad within the first stanza.
After reading the first few stanzas, one learns that Edward has murdered
his father and is very distraught. His attitude changes to disgust and
finally to despair when he realizes the consequences he must face for his
actions. An example of the attitudes and personalities of characters determining
the theme is also seen in the book of Genesis. The proud personality of
Cain and the humble personality of Abel help create the conflict for this
story. Cain and Abel were brothers, possibly twins, who displayed intense
sibling rivalry. God was not pleased with Cain's offerings, but found pleasure
in Abel's offerings. Provoked by God's displeasure with him, Cain murdered
his own brother out of jealousy. Victoria Henderson, Student, University
of North Carolina at Pembroke
connotation (KAH-nuh-TAE-shun): an
association that comes along with a particular word. Connotations relate
not to a word's actual meaning, or denotation,
but rather to the ideas or qualities that are implied by that word. A good
example is the word "gold." The denotation of gold is a malleable,
ductile, yellow element. The connotations, however, are the ideas associated
with gold, such as greed, luxury, or avarice. Another example occurs in
the Book of Genesis. Jacob says: “Dan will be a serpent by the roadside,
a viper along the path, that bites the horse’s heels so that its rider
tumbles backward" (Gen 49:17). In this passage, Dan is not literally going
to become a snake. However, describing Dan as a "snake" and "viper" forces
the reader to associate him with the negative qualities that are commonly
associated with reptiles, such as slyness, danger, and evil. Dan becomes
like a snake, sly and dangerous to the riders. Writers use connotation
to make their writing more vivid and interesting to read. See A Dictionary
of Literary Terms and Literary Theory. Jennifer Lance, Student,
University of North Carolina at Pembroke
couplet (KUP-let): a style of poetry defined
as a complete thought written in two lines with rhyming ends. The most
popular of the couplets is the heroic couplet. The heroic couplet consists
of two rhyming lines of iambic pentameter usually having a pause in the
middle of each line. One of William Shakespeare’s trademarks was to end
a sonnet with a couplet, as in the poem “Shall I
Compare Thee to a Summer’s Day”:
So long as men can breathe or eyes can see,
So long as lives this, and this gives life to thee.
By using the couplet Shakespeare would often signal the end of a scene
in his plays as well. An example of a scene’s end signaled by a couplet
is the end of Act IV of
Othello. The scene ends with Desdemona’s
lines:
Good night. Good night. Heaven me such uses send.
Not to pick bad from bad, but by bad mend.
See
A Handbook to Literature,
Benet’s Reader’s Encyclopedia,
Mirriam-Webster’s
Encyclopedia of Literature,
Literature: An Introduction to Fiction,
Poetry, and Drama.
Monica Horne, Student, University of North Carolina
at Pembroke
denotation (DEE-no-TAE-shuhn): the
exact meaning of a word, without the feelings or suggestions that the word
may imply. It is the opposite of “connotation”
in that it is the “dictionary” meaning of a word, without attached feelings
or associations. Some examples of denotations are:
1. heart: an organ that circulates blood throughout
the body. Here the word "heart" denotes the actual organ, while in another
context, the word "heart" may connote feelings of love or heartache.
2. sweater: a knitted garment for the upper body. The word "sweater"
may denote pullover sweaters or cardigans, while “sweater” may also connote
feelings of warmness or security.
Denotation allows the reader to know the exact meaning of a word so that
he or she will better understand the work of literature. See
Literature:
An Introduction to Fiction, Poetry, and Drama,
A Glossary of Literary
Terms,
A Dictionary of Literary Terms and Literary Theory,
Webster’s
Dictionary.
Shana Locklear, Student, University of North Carolina
at Pembroke
denouement (day-noo-mon): literally meaning
the action of untying, a denouement is the final outcome of the main complication
in a play or story. Usually the climax (the turning point or "crisis")
of the work has already occurred by the time the denouement occurs. It
is sometimes referred to as the explanation or outcome of a drama that
reveals all the secrets and misunderstandings connected to the plot. In
the drama Othello, there is a plot to deceive Othello into believing
that his wife, Desdemona, has been unfaithful to him. As a result of this
plot, Othello kills his wife out of jealousy, the climax of the play. The
denounement occurs soon after, when Emilia, who was Desdemona's mistress,
proves to Othello that his wife was in fact honest, true, and faithful
to him. Emilia reveals to Othello that her husband, Iago, had plotted against
Desdemona and tricked Othello into believing that she had been unfaithful.
Iago kills Emilia in front of Othello, and she dies telling Othello his
wife was innocent. As a result of being mad with grief, Othello plunges
a dagger into his own heart. Understanding the denouement helps the reader
to see how the final end of a story unfolds, and how the structure of stories
works to affect our emotions. See Encyclopedia of Literature, Miriam
Webster. Shelby Locklear, Student, University of North Carolina at Pembroke
dialogue (di-UH-log): The conversation
between characters in a drama or narrative.
A dialouge occurs in most works of literature. For example, many ballads
demonstrate a ocnversation between two or more characters. In the anonymous
ballad, "Sir Patrick Spens", we are able to observe the dialogue between
Sir Patrick Spens and his mirry men. In the verses 21-24, "Mak hast, mak
haste, my mirry men all, Our guid schip sails the morne: O say na sae,
my master deir, for I feir a deadline storme," dialogue can be seen. According
to A Handbook of Literature, dialogue serves several functions in
literature. It moves the action along in a work and it also helps to characterize
the personality of the speakers, which vary depending on their nationalities,
jobs, social classes, and educations. It also gives literature a more natural,
conversational flow, which makes it more readable and enjoyable. By showcasing
human interaction, dialogue prevents literature from being nothing more
than a list of descriptions and actions. Dialogue varies in structure and
tone depending on the people participating in the conversation and the
mood that the author is trying to maintain in his or her writing. See A
Handbook to Literature,The American Heritage Dictionary. Ramon Gonzalez,
Student, University of North Carolina at Pembroke
didactic (di-DAK-tik): refers to literature
or other types of art that are instructional or informative. In this sense
The
Bible is didactic because it offers guidance in moral, religious, and
ethical matters. It tells stories of the lives of people that followed
Christian teachings, and stories of people that decided to go against God
and the consequences that they faced. The term "didactic" also refers to
texts that are overburdened with instructive and factual information, sometimes
to the detriment of a reader's enjoyment. The opposite of "didactic" is
"nondidactic." If a writer is more concerned with artistic qualities and
techniques than with conveying a message, then that piece of work is considered
to be nondidactic, even if it is instructive. See Encyclopedia of Literature,
Benet's
Readers Encyclopedia. Jennifer Baker, University of North Carolina
at Pembroke
dramatic monologue (dra-MA-tik
mon'-O-lôg): a literary device that is used when a character
reveals his or her innermost thoughts and feelings, those that are hidden
throughout the course of the story line, through a poem or a speech. This
speech, where only one character speaks, is recited while other characters
are present onstage. This monologue often comes during a climactic moment
in a work and often reveals hidden truths about a character, their history
and their relationships. Also it can further develop a character's personality
and also be used to create irony. The most famous
examples of this special type of monologue can be found within the poems
of Robert Browning, poem such as "My Last Duchess," "The Bishop Orders
his Tomb," and "Andrea Del Santo". Browning's use of dramatic monologue
has a special effect on his works. The revelations of his characters not
only develop themselves, but they also create settings within the monologues
with their use of vivid imagery. In Browning's works, the characters almost
seem to take control of the story line, creating a poem of their own. Other
authors whose works included dramatic monologues are Robert Frost and T.S.
Elliot. See A Reader's Companion to World Literature. Jacob Gersh,
Student, University of North Carolina at Pembroke
elegy (EL-e-je): a type of literature defined
as a song or poem, written in elegiac couplets,
that expresses sorrow or lamentation, usually for one who has died. This
type of work stemmed out of a Greek work known as a "elegus," a song of
mourning or lamentation that is accompanied by the flute. Beginning in
the 16th century, elegies took the form we know today. Two famous elegies
include Thomas Gray’s "Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard" and Walt
Whitman’s "When Lilacs Last in the Dooryard Bloom’d". Gray’s elegy is notable
in that it mourned the loss of a way of life rather than the loss of an
individual. His work, which some consider to be almost political, showed
extreme discontent for strife and tyranny set upon England by Oliver Cromwell.
This work also acted as an outlet for Gray’s dissatisfaction with those
poets who wrote in accordance with the thoughts and beliefs of the upper
class. In his elegy, Gray mourned for his country and mourned for its citizens.
Whitman, inspired by the assassination of Abraham Lincoln, wrote his elegy
in its classic form, showing sorrow for the loss of an individual. See
A
Reader’s Companion to World Literature, and
Dictionary of World
Literature.
epigram (ep-e-gram): a short poem or verse
that seeks to ridicule a thought or event, usually with witticism or sarcasm.
These literary works were very popular during the Renaissance in Europe
in the late 14th century and the Neoclassical period, which began after
the Restoration in 1660. They were most commonly found in classic Latin
literature, European and English literature. In Ancient Greek, an epigram
originally meant a short inscription, but its meaning was later broadened
to include any very short poems. Poems that are meditative or satiric all
fall into this category. These short poems formulated from the light verse
species, which concentrated on the tone of voice and the attitude of the
lyric or narrative speaker toward the subject. With a relaxed manner, lyricists
would recite poems to their subjects that were comical or whimsical. Samuel
Taylor Coleridge (1771-1834), an English poet, essayist and critic, constructed
an epigram to show humor in Romanticism. His thoughts, “On a Volunteer
Singer”, compares and contrasts the death of swans with that of humans:
Swans sing before they die- ‘twere no bad thing
Should certain people die before they sing!
The ballad, “Lord Randall” illustrates a young man who set off to meet
his one true love and ends up becoming “sick at heart” with what he finds.
The young man later arrives home to his family about to die and to each
family member he leaves something sentimental. When asked what he leaves
to his true love, he responds:
I leave her hell and fire…
This epigram tried to depict what happens to love gone sour. Epigrams have
been used throughout the centuries not only to criticize but also to promote
improvement. See Benet’s Reader’s Encyclopedia, Webster’s Third
New International Dictionary (unabridged), and A Glossary of Literary
Terms. Melanie P. Stephens, Student, University of North Carolina
at Pembroke
figurative language (fig-YOOR-a-tive
LAN-gwije): a type of language that varies from the norms of literal language,
in which words mean exactly what they say. Also known as the "ornaments
of language," figurative language does not mean exactly what it says, but
instead forces the reader to make an imaginative leap in order to comprehend
an author's point. It usually involves a comparison between two things
that may not, at first, seem to relate to one another. In a simile,
for example, an author may compare a person to an animal: "He ran like
a hare down the street" is the figurative way to describe the man running
and "He ran very quickly down the street" is the literal way to describe
him. Figurative language facilitates understanding because it relates something
unfamiliar to something familiar. Some popular examples of figurative language
include a simile and
metaphor. See
A Handbook
to Literature,
A Dictionary of Literary Terms and
Literary
Theory, and
A Glossary of Literary Terms.
Charla Cobbler,
Student, University of North Carolina at Pembroke
flashback (flash-BAK): “an interruption
of the chronological sequence (as of a film or literary work) of an event
of earlier occurrence” (Merriam, 288). A flashback is a narrative technique
that allows a writer to present past events during current events, in order
to provide background for the current narration. By giving material that
occurred prior to the present event, the writer provides the reader with
insight into a character's motivation and or background to a conflict.
This is done by various methods, narration, dream sequences, and memories
(Holman et al, 197). For example, in the Book of Matthew, a flashback is
used when Joseph is the governor of Egypt. Upon seeing his brothers after
many years, Joseph “remembered his dreams” of his brothers and how they
previously sold him into slavery (NIV, 69). Another example would be the
ballad of “The Cruel Mother.” Here, a mother is remembering her murdered
child. As she is going to a church, she remembers her child born, grow,
and die. Later she thinks back to further in her past to remember how her
own mother was unkind to her (Kennedy et al, 626-627). Arthur Miller’s
“Death of a Salesman” uses flashback to relate Willy Loman’s memories of
the past. At one point, Willy is talking with his dead brother while playing
cards with Charley, reliving a past conversation in the present. This shows
a character that is mentally living in the present with the memories and
events of the past (Roberts et al, 1232). By understanding flashbacks,
the reader is able to receive more details about the current narration
by filling in the details about the past. Melanie Stephens, Student,
University of North Carolina at Pembroke
genre (ZHAHN-ruh): a type of literature. We
say a poem, novel, story, or other literary work belongs to a particular
genre if it shares at least a few conventions, or standard characteristics,
with other works in that genre. For example, works in the Gothic genre
often feature supernatural elements, attempts to horrify the reader, and
dark, foreboding settings, particularly very old castles or mansions. Edgar
Allan Poe's short story "The Fall of the House of Usher" belongs to the
Gothic
genre because it takes place in a gloomy mansion that seems to exert supernatural
control over a man who lives in it. Furthermore, Poe attempts to horrify
the reader by describing the man's ghastly face, the burial of his sister,
eerie sounds in the house, and ultimately the reappearance of the sister's
bloody body at the end of the story. Other genres include the pastoral
poem, epic poem, elegy, tragic drama, and bildungsroman. An understanding
of genre is useful because it helps us to see how an author adopts, subverts,
or transcends the standard practices that other authors have developed.
See
A Handbook to Literature,
Benet's Reader's Encyclopedia.
Mark
Canada, English professor, University of North Carolina at Pembroke
Gothic (goth-IK): a literary style popular
during the end of the 18th century and the beginning of the 19th. This
style usually portrayed fantastic tales dealing with horror, despair, the
grotesque and other "dark" subjects. Gothic literature was named for the
apparent influence of the dark gothic architecture of the period on the
genre. Also, many of these Gothic tales took places in such "gothic" surroundings,
sometimes a dark and stormy castle as shown in Mary Wollstoncraft Shelly's
Frankenstein,
or Bram Stoker's infamous Dracula. Other times, this story of darkness
may occur in a more everyday setting, such as the quaint house where the
man goes mad from the "beating" of his guilt in Edgar Allan Poe's "The
Tell-Tale Heart". In essence, these stories were romances, largely
due to their love of the imaginary over the logical, and were told from
many different points of view. This literature
gave birth to many other forms, such as suspense, ghost stories, horror,
mystery, and also Poe's detective stories. Gothic literature wasn't so
different from other genres in form as it was in content and its focus
on the "weird" aspects of life. This movement began to slowly open may
people's eyes to the possible uses of the supernatural in literature.
Jerry
Taylor, Student, University of North Carolina at Pembroke
hyperbole (hi-per-bo-lee): an extravagant
exaggeration. From the Greek for "overcasting," hyperbole is a figure of
speech that is a grossly exaggerated description or statement. In literature,
such exaggeration is used for emphasis or vivid descriptions. In drama,
hyperbole is quite common, especially in heroic drama. Hyperbole is a fundamental
part of both burlesque writing and the “tall tales” from Western America.
The conscious overstatements of these tales are forms of hyperbole. Many
other examples of hyperbole can be found in the romance fiction and comedy
genres.
Hyperbole is even a part of our day-to-day speech: ‘You’ve grown like a
bean sprout’ or ‘I’m older than the hills.’ Hyperbole is used to increase
the effect of a description, whether it is metaphoric or comic. In poetry,
hyperbole can emphasize or dramatize a person’s opinions or emotions. Skilled
poets use hyperbole to describe intense emotions and mental states. Othello
uses hyperbole to describe his anger at the possibility of Iago lying about
his wife’s infidelity in Act III, Scene III of Shakespeare’s play
Othello:
If thou dost slander her and torture me,
Never pray more; abandon all remorse;
On horror’s head accumulate;
Do deeds to make heaven weep, all earth amazed;
For nothing canst thou to damnation add
Greater than that.
In this passage, Othello is telling Iago that if he is lying then Othello
will have no pity and Iago will have no hope for salvation. Adding
horrors with still more horrors, Othello is describing his potential rage.
Othello even declares that the Earth will be confounded with horror at
Othello’s actions in such a state of madness. See
A Glossary of Literary
Terms ,
A Handbook to Literature.
Andy Stamper, Student,
University of North Carolina at Pembroke
irony (i-RAH-nee): a literary term referring
to how a person, situation, statement, or circumstance is not as it would
actually seem. Many times it is the exact opposite of what it appears to
be. There are many types of irony, the three most common being verbal irony,
dramatic irony, and cosmic irony. Verbal irony occurs when either the speaker
means something totally different than what he is saying or the audience
realizes, because of their knowledge of the particular situation to which
the speaker is referring, that the opposite of what a character is saying
is true. Verbal irony also occurs when a character says something in jest
that, in actuality, is true. In Julius Caesar, Marc Antony’s reference
to Brutus being an honorable man is an example of verbal irony. Marc Antony
notes all of the good deeds Julius Caesar did for his people while, more
than once, he asks the rhetorical question, “Did this in Caesar seem ambitious?”
Antony uses this rhetorical question to try to convince his audience that
Caesar is not ambitious, presenting Brutus as a dishonorable man because
of his claim that Caesar was ambitious. Dramatic irony occurs when facts
are not known to the characters in a work of literature but are known by
the audience. In The Gospel According to St. John, the Pharisees say of
Jesus, “Can any good thing come out of Nazareth?” This is dramatic irony
for the reader already knows, according to the author, that Jesus is the
Savior of the world and has already done much good for the people by forgiving
their sins and healing the sick and oppressed. The Pharisees are too blinded
to see what good actually has come out of Nazareth. Cosmic irony suggests
that some unknown force brings about dire and dreadful events. Cosmic irony
can be seen in Shakespeare’s Othello. Iago begs his wife to steal
Desdemona’s handkerchief so he can use this as conclusive proof that Cassio
is having an affair with Desdemona. At the end of the play, when Othello
tells Iago’s wife about the handkerchief, she confesses that Iago put her
up to stealing it. Iago winds up being at Cassio’s mercy. The very handkerchief
Iago thought would allow him to become lieutenant and bring Cassio to ruins
was the handkerchief that brought Iago to ruins and exalted Cassio even
higher than his position of lieutenant. Irony spices up a literary work
by adding unexpected twists and allowing the reader to become more involved
with the characters and plot. See A Handbook to Literature, The
Elements of Fiction Writing: Characters and Viewpoint. Robert Bean,
Student, University of North Carolina at Pembroke
lyric (LEER-ick): a lyric is a song-like poem
written mainly to express the feelings of emotions or thought from a particular
person, thus separating it from narrative poems.
These poems are generally short, averaging roughly twelve to thirty lines,
and rarely go beyond sixty lines. These poems express vivid imagination
as well as emotion and all flow fairly concisely. Because of this aspect,
as well as their steady rhythm, they were often used in song. In fact,
most people still see a "lyric" as anything that is sung along to a musical
instrument. It is believed that the lyric began in its earliest stage in
Ancient Egypt around 2600 BC in the forms of elegies, odes, or hymns generated
out of religious ceremonies. Some of the more note-worthy authors who have
used the lyric include William Blake, William Wordsworth, John Keats, and
William Shakespeare-who helped popularize the sonnet, another type of lyric.
The importance of understanding the lyric can best be shown through its
remarkable ability to express with such imagination the innermost emotions
of the soul. See
The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language.
Jerry Taylor, Student, University of North Carolina at Pembroke
metaphor (met-AH-for) [from the Gk. carrying
one place to another]: a type of figurative
language in which a statement is made that says that one thing is something
else but, literally, it is not. In connecting one object, event, or place,
to another, a metaphor can uncover new and intriguing qualities of the
original thing that we may not normally notice or even consider important.
Metaphoric language is used in order to realize a new and different meaning.
As an effect, a metaphor functions primarily to increase stylistic colorfulness
and variety. Metaphor is a great contributor to poetry when the reader
understands a likeness between two essentially different things. In his
Poetics,
Aristotle claims that for one to master the use of metaphor is “…a sign
of genius, since a good metaphor implies an intuitive perception of the
similarity in dissimilars” (
The Poet's Dictionary). A metaphor may
be found in a simple comparison or largely as the image of an entire poem.
For example, Emily Dickinson’s poem “My Life had stood – a Loaded Gun”
makes use of a series of comparisons between the speaker and a gun. Dickinson
opens the work with the following: “My Life had stood – a Loaded Gun -
/ In corners – till a Day / The Owner passed – identified - / And carried
me away”. Of course, the narrator is not really a gun. The metaphor
carries with it all the qualities of a “Loaded Gun”. The speaker in the
poem is making a series of comparisons between themselves and the qualities
of a gun. The narrator had been waiting a long time before their love found
them. The narrator loves her fellow so desperately that she feels as a
protective gun that would kill anyone wishing to harm him. To this effect,
Dickinson writes, "To foe of His – I’m deadly foe –." Dickinson’s
poem ends up being one extended comparison through the use of metaphor
between herself and a gun with “…but the power to kill.” See
A
Handbook to Literature,
The Poet’s Dictionary, or
A Glossary
of Literary Terms (7th edition).
Andy Stamper, Student, University
of North Carolina at Pembroke
metonymy (me-TAH-nah-me): a figure of
speech which substitutes one term with another that is being associated
with the that term. A name transfer takes place to demonstrate an association
of a whole to a part or how two things are associated in some way. This
allows a reader to recognize similarities or common features among terms.
It may provide a more common meaning to a word. However, it may be a parallel
shift that provides basically the same meaning; it is just said another
way. For example, in the book of Genesis 3:19, it refers to Adam by saying
that “by the sweat of your brow, you will eat your food.” Sweat represents
the hard labor that Adam will have to endure to produce the food that will
sustain his life. The sweat on his brow is a vivid picture of how hard
he is working to attain a goal. Another example is in Genesis 27:28 when
Isaac tells Jacob that “God will give you...an abundance of grain and new
wine.” This grain and wine represents the wealth that Jacob will attain
by stealing the birth right. These riches are like money that is for consumption
or material possessions to trade for other goods needed for survival. Furthermore,
in the play Othello, Act I Scene I features metonymy when Iago refers
to Othello as “ the devil” that “will make a grandsire of you.” This phrase
represents a person that is seen as deceitful or evil. An understanding
of metonymy aids a reader to see how an author interchanges words to further
describe a term’s meaning. See A Handbook to Literature; Literature:
An Introduction to Fiction, Poetry, and Drama; Literature: An Introduction
to Fiction, Poetry, and Drama; or Merriam Webster Collegiate Dictionary.
Melanie
Stephens, Student, University of North Carolina at Pembroke
motif (moh-TEEF): a recurring object, concept,
or structure in a work of literature. A motif may also be two contrasting
elements in a work, such as good and evil. In the Book of Genesis, we see
the motif of separation again and again throughout the story. In the very
first chapter, God separates the light from the darkness. Abraham and his
descendants are separated from the rest of the nation as God's chosen people.
Joseph is separated from his brothers in order that life might be preserved.
Another motif is water, seen in Genesis as a means of destroying the wicked
and in Matthew as a means of remitting sins by the employment of baptism.
Other motifs in Genesis and Matthew include blood sacrifices, fire, lambs,
and goats. A motif is important because it allows one to see main points
and themes that the author is trying to express, in order that one might
be able to interpret the work more accurately. See A Handbook to Literature,
The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Literary Terms. Robert Bean, Student,
University of North Carolina at Pembroke
myth (mith): any story that attempts to explain
how the world was created or why the world is the way that it is. Myths
are stories that are passed on from generation to generation and normally
involve religion. M.H. Abram refers to myths as a “religion in which we
no longer believe.” Most myths were first spread by oral tradition and
then were written down in some literary form. Many ancient literary works
are, in fact, myths as myths appear in every ancient culture of the planet.
For example you can find them in ethnological tales, fairy tales as well
as epics. A good example of a myth is The Book of Genesis, which recounts
tales of the creation of the universe, the Earth and mankind. See A
Glossary to Literary Terms, Webster’s Encylopedia of Literature. Becky
Davis, Student, University of North Carolina at Pembroke
narrative (na-RAH-tiv): a collection of
events that tells a story, which may be true or not, placed in a particular
order and recounted through either telling or writing. One example is Edgar
Allen Poe's "The Tell-Tale Heart." In this story a madman resolves to kill
his landlord because he fears the man's horrible eye. One night he suffocates
the landlord and hides the body beneath the floorboards of the bedroom.
While fielding questions from the police in the bedroom where the body
is hidden, the madman thinks he hears the heart of the victim beating beneath
the floorboards. Scared that the police hear the heartbeat too, the madman
confesses. This is a narrative because of two things, it has a sequence
in which the events are told, beginning with murder and ending with the
confession, and it has a narrator, who is the madman, telling the story.
By understanding the term "narrative,” one begins to understand that most
literary works have a simple outline: the story, the plot, and the storyteller.
By studying more closely, most novels and short stories are placed into
the categories of first-person and third-person narratives, which are based
on who is telling the story and from what perspective. Other important
terms that relate to the term "narrative,” are "narrative poetry," poetry
that tells a story, and "narrative technique" which means how one tells
a story.
narrative poem (nar-RAH-tiv po-EM):
a poem that tells a story. A narrative poem can come in many forms and
styles, both complex and simple, short or long, as long as it tells a story.
A few examples of a narrative poem are epics, ballads,
and metrical romances. In western literature, narrative poetry dates back
to the Babylonian epic of Gilgamesh and Homer's epics the Iliad and the
Odyssey. In England and Scotland, storytelling poems have long been popular;
in the late Middle Ages, ballads-or storytelling songs-circulated widely.
The art of narrative poetry is difficult in that it requires the author
to possess the skills of a writer of fiction, the ability to draw characters
and settings briefly, to engage attention, and to shape a plot, while calling
for all the skills of a poet besides. See A Handbook of Literature
and Literature: An Introduction to Fiction, Poetry, and Drama. Melissa
Houghton, Student, University of North Carolina at Pembroke
narrator (nar-RAY-ter): one who tells
a story, the speaker or the “voice” of an oral or written work. Although
it can be, the narrator is not usually the same person as the author. The
narrator is one of three types of characters in a given work, (1) participant
(protagonist or participant in any action that
may take place in the story), (2) observer (someone who is indirectly involved
in the action of a story), or (3) non participant (one who is not at all
involved in any action of the story). The narrator is the direct window
into a piece of work. Depending on the part of the character of the narrator
plays in the story, the narrator may demonstrate bias when presenting a
piece of work. In the Book of Matthew, the narrator Matthew, probably presented
some bias when giving his accounts of the events that took place during
that time. See Introduction to Literature, A Handbook to Literature.
Heather
Cameron, Student, University of North Carolina at Pembroke
parable (PAIR-uh-buhl): a brief and often
simple narrative that illustrates a moral or religious
lesson. Some of the best-known parables are in the
Bible, where
Jesus uses them to teach his disciples. For example, in "The Parable of
the Good Seed," a farmer plants a garden. As the farmer sleeps, someone
sows weeds in his field to destroy the farmer's crops. However, when he
learns of his misfortune, he does not demolish his entire garden just to
remove the weeds. The farmer waits patiently until harvest time and gathers
his wheat after the weeds have first been collected and destroyed. The
lesson to be learned in this parable is to not be quick to annihilate evil;
it will in deserving time receive its punishment. Some other parables in
the Bible are "The Parable of the Prodigal Son" and "The Parable of the
Mustard Seed." See
The Encyclopedia of Literature,
A Handbook
to Literature.
Starlet Chavis, Student, University of North Carolina
at Pembroke
persona (per-SO-na): In literature, the
persona is the narrator, or the storyteller, of
a literary work created by the author. As Literature: An Introduction
to Fiction, Poetry, and Drama puts it, the persona is not the author,
but the author’s creation--the voice “through which the author speaks.”
It could be a character in the work, or a fabricated
onlooker, relaying the sequence of events in a narrative. Such an example
of persona exists in the poem “Robin Hood and Allin a Dale,” in which an
anonymous character, perhaps one of Robin’s “merry men,” recounts the events
of the meeting and adventures of Robin Hood and Allin a Dale. After telling
of their initial introduction in the forest, the persona continues to elaborate
on their quest to recover Allin’s true love from the man she is about to
marry. Robin and his entourage succeed and then proceed to marry her and
Allin a Dale. The persona’s importance is recognized due to the more genuine
manner in which the events of a story are illustrated to the reader—with
a sense of knowledge and emotion only one with a firsthand view of the
action could depict. See A Handbook to Literature, Merriam-Webster’s
Encyclopedia of Literature, Literature: An Introduction to Fiction,
Poetry, and Drama. Stephanie White, Student, University of North
Carolina at Pembroke
personification {PER-son-E-fih-ka-shEn):
A figure of speech where animals, ideas or inorganic objects are given
human characteristics. One example of this is James Stephens’s poem "The
Wind" in which wind preforms several actions. In the poem Stephens writes,
“The wind stood up and gave a shout. He whistled on his two fingers.” Of
course the wind did not actually "stand up," but this image of the wind
creates a vivid picture of the wind's wild actions. Another example of
personification in this poem is “Kicked the withered leaves about….And
thumped the branches with his hand.” Here, the wind is kicking leaves about,
just like a person would and using hands to thump branches like a person
would also. By giving human characteristics to things that do not have
them, it makes these objects and their actions easier to visualize for
a reader. By giving the wind human characteristics, Stephens makes this
poem more interesting and achieves a much more vivid image of the way wind
whips around a room. Personification is most often used in poetry, coming
to popularity during the 18th century. Jennifer Winborne, Student, University
of North Carolina at Pembroke
point of view (point ov veww): a way
the events of a story are conveyed to the reader, it is the “vantage point”
from which the narrative is passed from author
to the reader. The point of view can vary from work to work. For example,
in the Book of Genesis the objective third person point of view
is presented, where a “nonparticipant” serves as the narrator
and has no insight into the characters' minds.
The narrator presents the events using the pronouns he, it, they, and reveals
no inner thoughts of the characters. In Edgar Allan Poe’s short story “The
Cask of Amontillado” the first person point of view is exhibited. In this
instance the main character conveys the incidents he encounters, as well
as giving the reader insight into himself as he reveals his thoughts, feelings,
and intentions. Many other points of view exist, such as omniscient (or
“all knowing”) in which the narrator “moves from one character to another
as necessary” to provide those character’s respective motivations and emotions.
Understanding the point of view used in a work is critical to understanding
literature; it serves as the instrument to relay the events of a story,
and in some instances the feelings and motives of the character(s). See
A
Handbook to Literature, Literature: An Introduction to Fiction,
Poetry, and Drama. Stephanie White, Student, University of North
Carolina at Pembroke
protagonist (pro-TAG-eh-nist) A protagonist
is considered to be the main character or lead
figure in a novel, play, story, or poem. It may also be referred
to as the "hero" of a work. Over a period of time the meaning of the term
protagonist has changed. The word protagonist originated in ancient Greek
drama and referred to the leader of a chorus. Soon the definition was changed
to represent the first actor onstage. In some literature today it may be
difficult to decide who is playing the role of the protagonist. For instance,
in Othello,we could say that Iago is the protagonist because he
was at the center of all of the play's controversy. But even if he was
a main character, was he the lead character? This ambiguity can lead to
multiple interpretations of the same work and different ways of appreciating
a single piece of literature. See Merrian Webster Encyclopedia of Literature,
Benet’s
Readers Encyclopedia of Literature. Khalil Shakeel, Student, University
of North Carolina at Pembroke
rhyme (rime): repetition of an identical or
similarly accented sound or sounds in a work. Lyricists may find multiple
ways to rhyme within a verse. End rhymes have words that rhyme at the end
of a verse-line. Internal rhymes have words that rhyme within it.
Algernon C. Swinburne (1837-1909), a rebel and English poet, used internal
rhymes in many of his Victorian poems such as “sister, my sister, O fleet
sweet swallow.” There are cross rhymes in which the rhyme occurs at the
end of one line and in the middle of the next; and random rhymes, in which
the rhymes seem to occur accidentally in no specific combination, often
mixed with unrhymed lines. These sort of rhymes try to bring a creative
edge to verses that usually have perfect rhymes in a sequential order.
Historically, rhyme came into poetry late, showing in the Western world
around AD 200 in the Church Latin of North Africa. Its popularity grew
in Medieval Latin poetry. The frequently used spelling in English, r*h*y*m*e
, comes from a false identification of the Greek word “rhythmos.”
Its true origin comes from Provencal, which is a relation to Provence,
a region of France. The traditional Scottish ballad, “Edward,” uses
end rhymes to describe what he has done with his sword and property:
And what wul ye doe wi’ your towirs and your ha’
That were sae fair to see, O?
Ile let thame stand tul they doun fa’
Rhyme gives poems flow and rhythm, helping the lyricist tell a story and
convey a mood. See A Handbook to Literature, Benet’s Reader’s
Encyclopedia, Webster’s Third New International Dictionary (unabridged),
A
Glossary of Literary Terms. Nancy Bullard, Student, University of
North Carolina at Pembroke
rhyme scheme (rime skeem): the pattern
of rhyme used in a poem, generally indicated by matching
lowercase letters to show which lines rhyme. The letter "a" notes the first
line, and all other lines rhyming with the first line. The first line that
does not rhyme with the first, or "a" line, and all others that rhyme with
this line, is noted by the letter "b", and so on. The rhyme scheme may
follow a fixed pattern (as in a sonnet) or may be arranged freely according
to the poet's requirements. The use of a scheme, or pattern, came about
before poems were written down; when they were passed along in song or
oral poetry. Since many of these poems were long, telling of great heroes,
battles, and other important cultural events, the rhyme scheme helped with
memorization. A rhyme scheme also helps give a verse movement, providing
a break before changing thoughts. The four-line stanza, or quatrain, is
usually written with the first line rhyming with the third line, and the
second line rhyming with the fourth line, abab. The English sonnet generally
has three quatrains and a couplet, such as abab, cdcd, efef, gg. The Italian
sonnet has two quatrains and a sestet, or six-line stanza, such as abba,
abba, cde, cde. Rhyme schemes were adapted to meet the artistic and expressive
needs of the poet. Henry Howard Surrey is credited with introducing the
sonnet form to England. This form differed from the Italian form
because he found that there were fewer rhyming words in English than there
were in Italian.
Shall I compare thee to a summer's day?
Thou art more lovely and more temperate.
Rough winds do shake the darling buds of May.
And summer's lease hath all too short a date.
Excerpt from Shakespeare's "Sonnet XVIII", rhyme scheme: a b a b.
See
Benet's Reader's Encyclopedia,
Dictionary of Literary
Terms,
A Dictionary of Literary Terms and Literary Theory, Microsoft
Encarta Encyclopedia 2000.
Nancy Bullard, Student, University of North
Carolina at Pembroke.
setting (set-ting): the time, place, physical
details, and circumstances in which a situation occurs. Settings include
the background, atmosphere or environment in which characters
live and move, and usually include physical characteristics of the surroundings.
Settings enables the reader to better envision how a story unfolds by relating
necessary physical details of a piece of literature. A setting may be simple
or elaborate, used to create ambiance, lend credibility or realism, emphasize
or accentuate, organize, or even distract the reader. Settings in the
Bible
are
simplistic. In the book of Genesis, we read about the creation of the universe
and the lives of the descendants of Adam. Great detail is taken in documenting
the lineage, actions, and ages of the characters at milestones in their
lives, yet remarkably little detail is given about physical characteristics
of the landscape and surroundings in which events occurred. In Genesis
20, we learn that because of her beauty, Sarah’s identity is concealed
to prevent the death of her husband, Abraham. Yet, we have no description
of Sarah or Abraham’s hair, eye or skin color, height, weight, physical
appearance, or surroundings. Detailed settings that were infrequent in
some ancient writings like the Bible are common in today’s literature.
In recent literature, settings are often described in elaborate detail,
enabling the reader to vividly envision even imaginary characters and actions
like the travels of Bilbo Baggins in
The Hobbit by J.R.R. Tolkien.
Settings have a way of drawing the reader into a piece of literature while
facilitating understanding of the characters and their actions. Understanding
the setting is useful because it enables us to see how an author captures
the attention of the reader by painting a mental picture using words. See
Literature,
An Introduction to Reading and Writing.
Kate Endriga, Student, University
of North Carolina at Pembroke
simile (sim-EH-lee): a simile is a type
of figurative language, language that
does not mean exactly what it says, that makes a comparison between two
otherwise unalike objects or ideas by connecting them with the words "like"
or "as." The reader can see a similar connection with the verbs resemble,
compare and liken. Similes allow an author to emphasize a certain characteristic
of an object by comparing that object to an unrelated object that is an
example of that characteristic. An example of a simile can be seen in the
poem “Robin Hood and Allin a Dale”:
With that came in a wealthy knight,
Which was both grave and old,
And after him a finikin lass,
Did shine like glistening gold.
In this poem, the lass did not literally glisten like gold, but by comparing
the lass to the gold the author emphasizes her beauty, radiance and purity,
all things associated with gold. Similarly, in N. Scott Momaday’s simple
poem, “Simile.” he says that the two characters in the poem are like deer
who walk in a single line with their heads high with their ears forward
and their eyes watchful. By comparing the walkers to the nervous deer,
Momaday emphasizes their care and caution. See
A Handbook to Literature
or
Literature: An Introduction to Fiction, Poetry, and Drama.
Crystal
Burnette, Student, University of North Carolina at Pembroke
short story (short store-ey): a prose
narrative
that is brief in nature. The short story also has many of the same characteristics
of a novel including characters, setting and plot. However, due to length
constraints, these characteristics and devices generally may not be as
fully developed or as complex as those developed for a full-length novel.
There are many authors well known for the short story including Edgar Allan
Poe, Sherwood Anderson and Ernest Hemingway. According to the book Literary
Terms by Karl Becksonand Arthur Ganz, “American writers since Poe,
who first theorized on the structure and purpose of the short story, have
paid considerable attention to the form” (257). The written “protocol”
regarding what comprises a short versus a long story is vague. However,
a general standard might be that the short story could be read in one sitting.
NTC’s Dictionary of Literary Terms
quotes Edgar Allan Poe’s description
as being ‘a short prose narrative, requiring from a half-hour to one or
two hours in its perusal’ (201). Please refer to Literary Terms
by Karl Beckson and Arthur Ganz and NTC’s
Dictionary of Literary Terms
by
Kathleen Morner and Ralph Rausch for further information. Susan Severson,
Student, University of North Carolina at Pembroke
slant rhyme (slänt rime) is also
known as near rhyme, half rhyme, off rhyme, imperfect rhyme, oblique rhyme,
or pararhyme. A distinctive system or pattern of metrical structure and
verse composition in which two words have only their final consonant sounds
and no preceding vowel or consonant sounds in common. Instead of perfect
or identical sounds or rhyme, it is the repetition of near or similar sounds
or the pairing of accented and unaccented sounds that if both were accented
would be perfect rhymes (stopped and wept, parable and shell). Alliteration,
assonance, and consonance are accepted as slant rhyme due to their usage
of sound combinations (spilled and spoiled, chitter and chatter). By not
allowing the reader to predict or expect what is coming slant rhyme allows
the poet to express things in different or certain ways. Slant rhyme was
most common in the Irish, Welsh and Icelandic verse and prose long before
Henry Vaughn used it in English. Not until William Butler Yeats and Gerald
Manley Hopkins began to use slant rhyme did it become regularly used in
English.Wilfred Owen was one of the first poets to realize the impact of
rhyming consonants in a consistent pattern. A World War I soldier he sought
a powerful means to convey the harshness of war. Killed in action, his
most famous work was written in the year prior to his death.
Now men will go content with what we spoiled
Or, discontent, boil bloody, and be spilled,
They will be swift with the swiftness of the tigress.
None will break ranks, though nations trek from progress.
Courage was mine, and I had mystery,
Wisdom was mine, and I had mastery:
To miss the march of this retreating world
Into vain citadels that are not walled.
See Benet's Reader Encyclopedia, Handbook to Literature,Literature:
An Introduction to Fiction, Poetry, and Drama. Michael Prevatte,
Student, University of North Carolina at Pembroke
sonnet (sonn-IT): a sonnet is a distinctive
poetic style that uses system or pattern of metrical structure and verse
composition usually consisting of fourteen lines, arranged in a set rhyme
scheme or pattern. There are two main styles of sonnet, the Italian
sonnet and the English sonnet. The Italian or Petrarchan sonnet, named
after Petrarch (1304-1374) a fourteenth century writer and the best known
poet to use this form, was developed by the Italian poet Guittone of Arezzo
(1230-1294) in the thirteenth century. Usually written in iambic pentameter,
it consists first of an octave, or eight lines, which asks a question or
states a problem or proposition and follows the rhyme scheme a-b-b-a, a-b-b-a.
The sestet, or last six lines, offers an answer, or a resolution to the
proposed problem, and follows the rhyme scheme c-d-e-c-d-e.
When I consider how my light is spent
Ere half my days, in this dark world and wide,
And that one talent which is death to hide
Lodged with me useless, though my soul more bent
To serve therewith my Maker, and present
My true account, lest he returning chide;
"Doth God exact day-labor, light denied?"
I fondly ask; but Patience to prevent
That murmur, soon replies, "God doth not need
Either man's work or his own gifts; who best
Bear his mild yoke, they serve him best. His
state
Is kingly. Thousands at his bidding speed
And post o'er land and ocean without rest:
They also serve who only stand and wait."
John Milton, "When I Consider How My
Light Is Spent"
The sonnet was first brought to England by Thomas Wyatt and Henry Howard,
Earl of Surrey, in the sixteenth century, where the second sonnet form
arose. The English or Shakespearean sonnet was named after William Shakespeare
(1564-1616) who most believed to the best writer to use the form. Adapting
the Italian form to the English, the octave and sestet were replaced by
three quatrains, each having its own independent rhyme scheme typically
rhyming every other line, and ending with a rhyme couplet. Instead of the
Italianic break between the octave and the sestet, the break comes between
the twelfth and thirteenth lines. The ending couplet is often the main
thought change of the poem, and has an
epigrammatic
ending. It follows the rhyme scheme a-b-a-b, c-d-c-d, e-f-e-f, g-g.
Shall I compare thee to a summer’s day?
Thou art more lovely and more temperate:
Rough winds do shake the darling buds of May,
And summer’s lease hath all to short a date:
Sometime too hot the eye of heaven shines,
And often is his gold complexion dimm’d:
And every fair from fair sometime declines,
By chance, or nature’s changing course, untrimm’d.
By thy eternal summer shall not fade
Nor lose possession of that fair thou owest;
Nor shall Death brag thou wandered in his shade,
When in eternal lines to time thou growest:
So long as men can breathe, or eyes can see,
So long lives this, and this gives life to thee.
Shakespeare, Sonnet XVIII. See
Benet’s Readers Encyclopedia,
Handbook
to Literature,
Literature: An Introduction to Fiction, Poetry, and
Drama. Michael Prevatte, Student, University of North Carolina at
Pembroke
symbol (sim-bol): a symbol is a word or
object that stands for another word or object. The object or word can be
seen with the eye or not visible. For example a dove stands for Peace.
The dove can be seen and peace cannot. The word is from the Greek word
symbolom. All language is symbolizing one thing or another. However when
we read the book of Genesis it talked about a few symbols. In the story
of Adam and Eve when Eve ate the apple, the apple stood for sin. Another
reading Cain and Able. The two brothers stood for good and evil, humility
and pride. Cain pulled Able to the fields and killed him. In this it is
a hidden symbol. It is showing that Cain stands for the bad and Able stands
for the good. See The Encyclopedia of Literature and A Handbook
to Literature. Misty Tarlton, Student, University of North Carolina
at Pembroke
theme (theem): a common thread or repeated idea
that is incorporated throughout a literary work. A theme is a thought or
idea the author presents to the reader that may be deep, difficult to understand,
or even moralistic. Generally, a theme has to be extracted as the reader
explores the passages of a work. The author utilizes the characters, plot,
and other literary devices to assist the reader in this endeavor. One theme
that may be extracted by the reader of Mark Musa’s interpretation of Dante’s
The
Divine Comedy Volume I: Inferno is the need to take account
of one’s own behavior now, for it affects one's condition in the afterlife.
One example of this theme can be found in Canto V - “...when the evil soul
appears before him, it confesses all, and he [Minos], who is the expert
judge of sins, knows to what place in Hell the soul belongs: the times
he wraps his tail around himself tells just how far the sinner must go
down” (7-12). In addition, Dante’s use of literary techniques, such as
imagery, further accentuates the theme for the consequences of not living
right, for he describes “the cries and shrieks of lamentation” (III:22),
“…the banks were coated with a slimy mold that stuck to them like glue,
disgusting to behold and worse to smell” (XVIII:106-108) and many other
terrifying examples of Hell. In truly great works of literature, the author
intertwines the theme throughout the work and the full impact is slowly
realized as the reader processes the text. The ability to recognize a theme
is important because it allows the reader to understand part of the author’s
purpose in writing the book. See Literature: An Introduction to
Fiction, Poetry and Drama, NTC’s Dictionary of Literary Terms,
and Literary Terms: A Dictionary. Susan Severson, Student, University
of North Carolina at Pembroke
unreliable narrator (un-re-LIE-ah-bel
nar-ra-AY-tor): one who gives his or her own understanding of a story,
instead of the explanation and interpretation the author wishes the audience
to obtain. This type of action tends to alter the audience’s opinion of
the conclusion. An author quite famous for using unreliable narrators is
Henry James. James is said to make himself an inconsistent and distorting
“center of consciousness” in his work, because of his frequent usage of
deluding or deranged narrators. They are very noticeable in his novella
The
Turn of the Screw, and also in his short story, “The Aspern Papers.”
The
Turn of the Screw is a story based solely on the consistency of the
Governess’s description of the events that happen. Being aware of
unreliable narrators are essential, especially when you have to describe
the characters and their actions to others, since the narrator, unreliable
as they are, abandons you without the important guidance to make trustworthy
judgments. See The Turn of the Screw and A Dictionary of Literary
Terms and Literary Theory. Starlet Chavis, Student, University of
North Carolina at Pembroke